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essential expansion

Толкование Перевод

1 essential expansion

мат. существенное расширение

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > essential expansion
2 essential expansion

Математика: существенное расширение

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > essential expansion
3 essential expansion

мат.

существенное расширение

English-Russian scientific dictionary > essential expansion
4 expansion

1) протяженность; пространство

2) метал. развальцовка

3) матем. разложение ( в ряд)

4) растяжение; расширение; распространение; экспансия

5) геол. увеличение мощности пласта

•

expansion by binomial theorem — матем. разложение по формуле бинома

expansion by cofactors — разложение (матрицы) на адъюнкты

expansion by continuity — матем. расширение по непрерывности

expansion by heat — физ. расширение при нагревании

expansion into a series — матем. разложение в ряд

expansion in terms of — разложение в ряд по...

- adjoint expansion

- algebraic expansion

- algebraically closed expansion

- analytic expansion

- basic expansion

- biharmonic expansion

- bilinear expansion

- binary expansion

- binomial expansion

- biortogonal expansion

- biquadratic expansion

- canonical expansion

- central expansion

- cluster expansion

- coefficient of expansion

- column expansion

- complex expansion

- continued fraction expansion

- convergent expansion

- cosine-series expansion

- cyclic expansion

- decimal expansion

- diagonal expansion

- double series expansion

- eigendifferential expansion

- eigenfunction expansion

- elementary expansion

- essential expansion

- expansion of functional

- expansion of game

- expansion of operator

- expansion of pipe

- factorial expansion

- flexible expansion

- formal expansion

- Fourier-series expansion

- fundamental expansion

- general expansion

- hyperspherical expansion

- improper expansion

- inessential expansion

- infinite continued fraction expansion

- infinitesimal expansion

- inseparable expansion

- integral expansion

- iteration expansion

- k-fold expansion

- maximal expansion

- minor expansion

- multinomial expansion

- non-uniform expansion

- normal expansion

- normal ordered expansion

- one-term expansion

- orthogonal expansion

- orthonormal expansion

- p-adic expansion

- parametric expansion

- partial fraction expansion

- perfect expansion

- pole expansion

- polyharmonic expansion

- polynomial expansion

- polytropic expansion

- primitive expansion

- purely inseparable expansion

- ramified expansion

- real expansion

- recursive expansion

- regular expansion

- rigid expansion

- row expansion

- self-adjoint expansion

- solvable expansion

- spatial expansion

- strong expansion

- symmetric expansion

- ternary expansion

- transcendental expansion

- triadic expansion

- trigonometric expansion

- two-dimensional expansion

- unramified expansion

- virial expansion

- weak expansion

English-Russian scientific dictionary > expansion
5 существенное расширение

мат. essential expansion

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > существенное расширение
6 asymptotic

1) асимптотический
2) асимптотика
3) полусходящийся ∙ arcwise asymptotic value ≈ дуговое асимптотическое значение asymptotic confidence interval ≈ асимптотический доверительный интервал asymptotic equipartition property ≈ свойство асимптотической равнораспределенности asymptotic essential component ≈ асимптотическая существенная компонента asymptotic expansion formula ≈ формула асимптотического разложения ( функции) asymptotic passage theorem ≈ теорема об асимптотическом поведении переходных вероятностей asymptotic power series expansion ≈ разложение в асимптотический степенной ряд asymptotic sequential design ≈ асимптотический последовательный план basic asymptotic estimate ≈ основная асимптотическая оценка central asymptotic problem ≈ центральная асимптотическая проблема doubly asymptotic triangle ≈ дважды асимптотический треугольник first asymptotic distribution ≈ первое предельное распределение multiply asymptotic series ≈ многократно асимптотический ряд negatively asymptotic point ≈ отрицательно асимптотическая точка pointwise asymptotic value ≈ точечное асимптотическое значение positively asymptotic point ≈ положительно асимптотическая точка simple asymptotic sieve ≈ простое асимптотическое решето trebly asymptotic triangle ≈ трижды асимптотический треугольник uniform asymptotic representation ≈ равномерное асимптотическое представление virtually asymptotic net ≈ виртуально асимптотическая сеть - asymptotic expression - asymptotic fairness - asymptotic fibration - asymptotic field - asymptotic flatness - asymptotic form - asymptotic formula - asymptotic frequency - asymptotic function - asymptotic geodesic - asymptotic growth - asymptotic helicity - asymptotic hexagon - asymptotic hyperplane - asymptotic inadmissibility - asymptotic independence - asymptotic inequality - asymptotic information - asymptotic integration - asymptotic interpolation - asymptotic invariance - asymptotic iteration - asymptotic law - asymptotic learning - asymptotic likelihood - asymptotic limit - asymptotic line - asymptotic linearity - asymptotic mean - asymptotic method - asymptotic mimimum - asymptotic minimax - asymptotic model - asymptotic moment - asymptotic nature - asymptotic negligibility - asymptotic net - asymptotic normalcy - asymptotic normality - asymptotic operator - asymptotic optimality - asymptotic optimum - asymptotic order - asymptotic parabola - asymptotic parallel - asymptotic path - asymptotic period - asymptotic phase - asymptotic plane - asymptotic point - asymptotic power - asymptotic prediction - asymptotic prime - asymptotic probability - asymptotic problem - asymptotic property - asymptotic proportionality - asymptotic ratio - asymptotic recurrence - asymptotic region - asymptotic relation - asymptotic representation - asymptotic resolvent - asymptotic restriction - asymptotic result - asymptotic root - asymptotic scaling - asymptotic semiform - asymptotic sequence - asymptotic series - asymptotic set - asymptotic shape - asymptotic sieve - asymptotic simplicity - asymptotic slope - asymptotic smallness - asymptotic solution - asymptotic spot - asymptotic stability - asymptotic state - asymptotic sufficiency - asymptotic sum - asymptotic surface - asymptotic symbol - asymptotic symmetry - asymptotic technique - asymptotic test - asymptotic theor - asymptotic theorem - asymptotic tract - asymptotic trajectory - asymptotic transformation - asymptotic triangle - asymptotic twistor - asymptotic unbiasedness - asymptotic value - asymptotic variable - asymptotic variance - asymptotic vector - isothermally asymptotic
асимптотический

asymptotic асимптотический

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > asymptotic
7 product

сущ.

1)

а) эк. продукт, изделие, товар (предмет, созданный человеком, машиной или природой; чаще всего имеются в виду предметы, созданные с целью продажи); мн. продукция

dairy products — молочная продукция

food products — продукты, продовольственные товары

skin-care products — средства для ухода за кожей

average quality product — товар среднего (уровня) качества

high-quality product — товар высокого качества, высококачественный [первоклассный\] товар

premium quality [premium grade\] product — товар высшего сорта [качества\], товар класса премиум-класса

undiscounted products — товары, продаваемые без скидки

low-priced product — недорогой продукт

fairly-priced product — товар по приемлемой [справедливой\] цене

product market — товарный рынок

product analysis — товарный анализ

product assortment — товарный ассортимент

product technology — технология производства продукции

to develop a product — разрабатывать товар (создавать идею и образец нового товара)

See:

acceptable product, accessory product, actual product, adulterated product, advanced technology products, ageing product, agricultural product, alimentary products, allied products, all-meat product, alternative products, ancillary product, anonymous product, augmented product, bakery products 1), basic product, beauty product, best-selling product, business products, by-product 1), &3, capitalized product, captive product, characteristic product, 2), co-product, commercialized product, commodity product, common product, comparable products, competing products, competiting products, competitive product, competitive products, complementary products, complete product, complicated product, conforming product, consumer products, consumer durable product, convenience products, core product, crop products, custom-designed product, customized product, custom-made product, declining product, deficient product, dehydrated product, differentiated product, diminishing marginal product, disposable product, diversified products, DIY product, do-it-yourself product, domestic product, durable products, egg product, electronics products, end product 2), &3, energy-saving product, entrenched product, essential product, established product, ethical product, ethnic product, everyday product, exclusive product, export products, fair trade product, fairly traded product, fairtrade product, fighting product, final product 1), а&2, financial product, food products, foreign products, formal product, functional product, generic product, global product, green products, grooming product, hair-care product, half-finished product, harmful product, health product, hedonic product, heterogeneous product, high performance product, high quality product, high-interest product 1), high-involvement products, high-margin product, high-reliability product, high-risk product, high-tech product, high-turnover product, high-value product, home-grown product, home-produced product, homogeneous product, hot product, household cleaning product, household maintenance products, household product, hygiene product, imitative product, imperfect product, import products, import-sensitive products, impulse product, industrial product, inferior product, information product, innovative product, in-process product, intangible product, interlocking products, intermediate product, investigated product, joint product, key product, knowledge-intensive product, known product, laundry products, lead product, leading edge product, leisure products, leisure-time products, licensed product, line extension product, livestock product, low-interest product 1), low-involvement products, low-value product, luxury product, main product 2), &3, manufactured products, marginal physical product, marginal product, mature product, me-too product, metal product, misbranded product, multinational product, multiple-use product 2), mundane product, national product, necessary product, necessity product, new product, no-name product, nonconforming product, non-conforming product, non-durable products, nonfood products, non-standard product, novel product, office products, off-price product, off-standard product, oil products, one-shot product, optional product, over-engineered product, paper products, parity products, patentable product, patented product, patent-protected product, payment product, pension product, pharmaceutical product, physical product, plant products, potential product, premium product, prestige products, price-sensitive product, primary products, prime product, printed products, private brand products, private label products, processed product, qualified product, quality products, ready-made product, rejected product, related product, replacement product, representative product, retirement product, revenue product, revised product, safe product, saleable product, salutary product, satisfactory product, scarce product, second generation product, secondary product, semi-finished products, shoddy product, sideline product, single-use product, skill-intensive product, slow-moving product, social product, sophisticated product, standardized products, sugared product, superior product, supplementary products, surplus product, synthetic product, tainted products, tangible product, tied product, tied products, tinned products, tobacco products 1), tying products, unacceptable product, unbranded product, unidentified product, unpatented product, unsafe product, unsaleable product, unsatisfactory product, utilitarian product, vendible product, viable product, wanted product, well-designed product, worthwhile product, product acceptability, product acceptance, product adaptability, product adaptation, product addition, product advertising, product analysis, product announcement, product application, product area, product arsenal, product assessment, product association, product assortment, product assurance, product augmentation, product availability, product awareness, product benefit, product billing, product brand, product branding, product bundling, product capabilities, product category, product choice, product claim, product class, product classification, product company, product compatibility, product competition, product comprehension, product concept, product conception, product control, product copy, product cost, product costing, product coverage, product cycle, product decision, product deletion, product demand, product demonstration, product departmentalization, product design, product development, product differences, product differentiation, product display, product distribution network, product diversification, product division, product element, product elimination, product engineering, product enhancement, product evaluation, product evolution, product exchange, product exhaustion, product expansion, product extension, product failure, product family, product field, product flows, product form, product graduation, product group, product homogeneity, product idea, product image, product improvement, product inflation, product innovation, product inspection, product integrity, product introduction, product invention, product item, product knowledge, product label, product labelling, product layout, product leveraging, product liability, product life, product life cycle, product line, product lineup, product literature, product management, product manager, product manual, product market, product marketing, product matching, product message, product mix, product modification, product name, product nameplate, product offering, product opportunity, product organization, product orientation, product origin, product patent, product perception, product performance, product personality, product placement, product plan, product planner, product planning, product policy, product portfolio, product position, product positioning, product preference, product presentation, product price, product pricing, product profile, product proliferation, product promotion, product proof, product protection, product publicity, product puffery, product quality, product quantity, product range, product rationalization, product recall, product release, product requirements, product research, product research and development, product retailer, product revision, product revolution, product safety, product sales, product sample, product sampling, product satisfaction, product segment, product segmentation, product shortage, product specialization, product specifications, product standard, product statement, product strategy, product structure, product style, product styling, product subline, product superiority, product survey, product tangibility, product team, product technology, product test, product testimony, product testing, product trial, product type, product uniformity, product usage, product validation, product variation, product variety, product warranty, endorse a product, Central Product Classification, Certificate of Pharmaceutical Product, Chemical and Allied Products Merchant Wholesalers, Clay Product and Refractory Manufacturing, debt-for-products swap

б) эк. продукт, объем продукции ( количество произведенных товаров или услуг)

company's product — продукция компании, товары компании

See:

bakery products 2), final product 1) б), industry product, multiple-use product 1) б)

2) общ. результат, продукт (итог какой-л. деятельности)

products of one's labour — результаты труда

History is the product of social and economic forces. — История — это результат взаимодействия общественных и экономических факторов.

the product of this activity is radiation — в результате этой деятельности появляется радиация.

See:

end product 1), by-product 2), main product 1), waste products, work product

3) мат. произведение ( результат умножения двух чисел)

* * *
продукт, товар: что-либо производимое для продажи.
* * *

продукт

* * *

Продукт
. . Словарь экономических терминов .
* * *

Реклама

рекламируемый товар

Англо-русский экономический словарь > product
8 ES

1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Embryonic Stem, Эспириту-Санту (штат Espírito Santo; в бразильских паспортах)

2) Компьютерная техника: Event Sequence, errored second

3) Медицина: конечная систола

4) Американизм: Employment Statistics

5) Ботаника: Embedded Systems

6) Спорт: Early Starter, Enjoy Skateboarding, Enjoy Skating

7) Военный термин: Electronic Warfare Support, Emplacement Site, En Suite, End Strength, Enemy Status, Exploitation Support, External Subscriber, electronic system, eligible for separation, embarkation staff, emergency service, engineer stores, engineering service, engineering specifications, engineering support, equipment section, equipment simulator, equipment specification, essential services, experimental station, exterior surface

8) Техника: echo sounder, electrical supply, electromagnetic simulator, electron spectrometer, electronic section, electronic synchrotron, electroshock, electrostatic spraying, empties side, engineered safeguards, examination standard, external shield, extraction steam, sporadic E

9) Сельское хозяйство: Early Spring, Exchangeable Sodium

10) Химия: Einsteinium, Elementary Submodel

11) Математика: пространство продолжений (extension space)

12) Юридический термин: Enhanced Security

13) Экономика: шкала для руководящих сотрудников, шкала окладов для руководящих сотрудников

14) Фармакология: (extra strength) (лекарственный препарат) с повышенной силой действия

15) Ветеринария: Endocrine Society

16) Грубое выражение: Elite Stupidity

17) Политика: El Salvador

18) Телевидение: edge smoothing

19) Телекоммуникации: Echo Suppressor, End-System (ISO)

20) Сокращение: Civil aircraft marking (Estonia), EW Support (Now known as ESM), Easter Sunday, Echo Sounding, Econometric Society, Education Specialist, El Salvador (NATO country code), Electromagnetic Switching, Electronic Support, Electronic Warfare Support Measures, Entomological Society, Error Seconds, Ethnological Society, Etymological Society, Eurosam, Expert System, Extreme Spread, Spain, Spanish, el electrostatic, electronic switching, equal section, emergency shelter

21) Текстиль: Extra Small

22) Университет: Engineering Science

23) Физика: Elementary Scenario

24) Физиология: Electrical stimulation, Empty Scrotum

25) Электроника: Electrical Stress, Engineering specification, Evidence Symmetry

26) Вычислительная техника: electromagnetic storage, electronic switch, elementary stream, extra segment, гнездо расширения, End System (ATM), Errored Seconds (DS1/E1), European Standard (ETSI), Extended Services (OS/2), (Red Hat Enterprise Linux) Enterprise Server (RedHat, Linux), Extra Segment (register, CPU, Intel, Assembler), разъём расширения, регистр дополнительного сегмента, стандарт в области электроники, экспертная система

27) Нефть: electrical sounding, electrical survey, emulsion stability, технические условия (engineering specifications), технические условия на оборудование (equipment specification), электрический каротаж (electrical survey), электроразведочная съёмка (electrical survey)

28) Космонавтика: Economic and Social Policy Department (FAO)

29) Биотехнология: Embryonic stem

30) Пищевая промышленность: Ecuadorian Salt

31) Фирменный знак: Executive Sedan

32) Экология: Exposure Scenario-Сценарий воздействия (REACH)

33) Сварка: Elongated Slag

34) SAP. категория сотрудников

35) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: electric survey

36) Образование: Environmental Science

37) Сетевые технологии: Enterprise Solution, electronic standard, end system, enterprise system, expansion slot, оконечная система, система масштаба предприятия

38) Полимеры: Electrochemical Society, electrostatic, engine sizing, engine-sized, even-sided

39) Программирование: Error Sources, Exit To Shell, Embedded System (Встроенная система)

40) Сахалин Р: electrical stability

41) Океанография: Earth Standard, Executive Secretariat

42) Научный термин: Emerging Science

43) Химическое оружие: Engineering Science, Incorporated

44) Макаров: earth station, emission spectroscopy

45) Безопасность: electronic shutter, electronic surveillance

46) SAP.тех. сектор экономики

47) Нефть и газ: Emergency Situation, electric log, electrical survey (log), emergency signal, emergency steamout

48) Электротехника: economy shutdown, electrostatic storage

49) Имена и фамилии: Edward Stanley

50) Общественная организация: Easter Seals

51) Должность: English Studies, Evil Stepmother

52) Чат: Even Steven

53) Правительство: Empire State, Eureka Springs

54) Единицы измерений: Exceeds standard, Extra Seconds

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > ES
9 Es

1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Embryonic Stem, Эспириту-Санту (штат Espírito Santo; в бразильских паспортах)

2) Компьютерная техника: Event Sequence, errored second

3) Медицина: конечная систола

4) Американизм: Employment Statistics

5) Ботаника: Embedded Systems

6) Спорт: Early Starter, Enjoy Skateboarding, Enjoy Skating

7) Военный термин: Electronic Warfare Support, Emplacement Site, En Suite, End Strength, Enemy Status, Exploitation Support, External Subscriber, electronic system, eligible for separation, embarkation staff, emergency service, engineer stores, engineering service, engineering specifications, engineering support, equipment section, equipment simulator, equipment specification, essential services, experimental station, exterior surface

8) Техника: echo sounder, electrical supply, electromagnetic simulator, electron spectrometer, electronic section, electronic synchrotron, electroshock, electrostatic spraying, empties side, engineered safeguards, examination standard, external shield, extraction steam, sporadic E

9) Сельское хозяйство: Early Spring, Exchangeable Sodium

10) Химия: Einsteinium, Elementary Submodel

11) Математика: пространство продолжений (extension space)

12) Юридический термин: Enhanced Security

13) Экономика: шкала для руководящих сотрудников, шкала окладов для руководящих сотрудников

14) Фармакология: (extra strength) (лекарственный препарат) с повышенной силой действия

15) Ветеринария: Endocrine Society

16) Грубое выражение: Elite Stupidity

17) Политика: El Salvador

18) Телевидение: edge smoothing

19) Телекоммуникации: Echo Suppressor, End-System (ISO)

20) Сокращение: Civil aircraft marking (Estonia), EW Support (Now known as ESM), Easter Sunday, Echo Sounding, Econometric Society, Education Specialist, El Salvador (NATO country code), Electromagnetic Switching, Electronic Support, Electronic Warfare Support Measures, Entomological Society, Error Seconds, Ethnological Society, Etymological Society, Eurosam, Expert System, Extreme Spread, Spain, Spanish, el electrostatic, electronic switching, equal section, emergency shelter

21) Текстиль: Extra Small

22) Университет: Engineering Science

23) Физика: Elementary Scenario

24) Физиология: Electrical stimulation, Empty Scrotum

25) Электроника: Electrical Stress, Engineering specification, Evidence Symmetry

26) Вычислительная техника: electromagnetic storage, electronic switch, elementary stream, extra segment, гнездо расширения, End System (ATM), Errored Seconds (DS1/E1), European Standard (ETSI), Extended Services (OS/2), (Red Hat Enterprise Linux) Enterprise Server (RedHat, Linux), Extra Segment (register, CPU, Intel, Assembler), разъём расширения, регистр дополнительного сегмента, стандарт в области электроники, экспертная система

27) Нефть: electrical sounding, electrical survey, emulsion stability, технические условия (engineering specifications), технические условия на оборудование (equipment specification), электрический каротаж (electrical survey), электроразведочная съёмка (electrical survey)

28) Космонавтика: Economic and Social Policy Department (FAO)

29) Биотехнология: Embryonic stem

30) Пищевая промышленность: Ecuadorian Salt

31) Фирменный знак: Executive Sedan

32) Экология: Exposure Scenario-Сценарий воздействия (REACH)

33) Сварка: Elongated Slag

34) SAP. категория сотрудников

35) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: electric survey

36) Образование: Environmental Science

37) Сетевые технологии: Enterprise Solution, electronic standard, end system, enterprise system, expansion slot, оконечная система, система масштаба предприятия

38) Полимеры: Electrochemical Society, electrostatic, engine sizing, engine-sized, even-sided

39) Программирование: Error Sources, Exit To Shell, Embedded System (Встроенная система)

40) Сахалин Р: electrical stability

41) Океанография: Earth Standard, Executive Secretariat

42) Научный термин: Emerging Science

43) Химическое оружие: Engineering Science, Incorporated

44) Макаров: earth station, emission spectroscopy

45) Безопасность: electronic shutter, electronic surveillance

46) SAP.тех. сектор экономики

47) Нефть и газ: Emergency Situation, electric log, electrical survey (log), emergency signal, emergency steamout

48) Электротехника: economy shutdown, electrostatic storage

49) Имена и фамилии: Edward Stanley

50) Общественная организация: Easter Seals

51) Должность: English Studies, Evil Stepmother

52) Чат: Even Steven

53) Правительство: Empire State, Eureka Springs

54) Единицы измерений: Exceeds standard, Extra Seconds

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Es
10 MEU

1) Военный термин: Marine Expeditionary Unit, message encoder unit, multiplexer encoder unit, (SOC) Marine Expeditionary Unit (Special Operations Capable)

2) Техника: medium-enriched uranium, moderately enriched uranium

3) Математика: минимизация ожидаемой полезности (minimization of expected utility)

4) Сокращение: Main Electronics Unit, Marine Expeditionary Unit (USA), Memory Expansion Unit, Mission Essential Unit, Modern English Usage, Maritime Expeditionary Unit (USA; SOC; Special Operations Capable)

5) Расширение файла: Menu group (DOS Shell)

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > MEU
11 eS

1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Embryonic Stem, Эспириту-Санту (штат Espírito Santo; в бразильских паспортах)

2) Компьютерная техника: Event Sequence, errored second

3) Медицина: конечная систола

4) Американизм: Employment Statistics

5) Ботаника: Embedded Systems

6) Спорт: Early Starter, Enjoy Skateboarding, Enjoy Skating

7) Военный термин: Electronic Warfare Support, Emplacement Site, En Suite, End Strength, Enemy Status, Exploitation Support, External Subscriber, electronic system, eligible for separation, embarkation staff, emergency service, engineer stores, engineering service, engineering specifications, engineering support, equipment section, equipment simulator, equipment specification, essential services, experimental station, exterior surface

8) Техника: echo sounder, electrical supply, electromagnetic simulator, electron spectrometer, electronic section, electronic synchrotron, electroshock, electrostatic spraying, empties side, engineered safeguards, examination standard, external shield, extraction steam, sporadic E

9) Сельское хозяйство: Early Spring, Exchangeable Sodium

10) Химия: Einsteinium, Elementary Submodel

11) Математика: пространство продолжений (extension space)

12) Юридический термин: Enhanced Security

13) Экономика: шкала для руководящих сотрудников, шкала окладов для руководящих сотрудников

14) Фармакология: (extra strength) (лекарственный препарат) с повышенной силой действия

15) Ветеринария: Endocrine Society

16) Грубое выражение: Elite Stupidity

17) Политика: El Salvador

18) Телевидение: edge smoothing

19) Телекоммуникации: Echo Suppressor, End-System (ISO)

20) Сокращение: Civil aircraft marking (Estonia), EW Support (Now known as ESM), Easter Sunday, Echo Sounding, Econometric Society, Education Specialist, El Salvador (NATO country code), Electromagnetic Switching, Electronic Support, Electronic Warfare Support Measures, Entomological Society, Error Seconds, Ethnological Society, Etymological Society, Eurosam, Expert System, Extreme Spread, Spain, Spanish, el electrostatic, electronic switching, equal section, emergency shelter

21) Текстиль: Extra Small

22) Университет: Engineering Science

23) Физика: Elementary Scenario

24) Физиология: Electrical stimulation, Empty Scrotum

25) Электроника: Electrical Stress, Engineering specification, Evidence Symmetry

26) Вычислительная техника: electromagnetic storage, electronic switch, elementary stream, extra segment, гнездо расширения, End System (ATM), Errored Seconds (DS1/E1), European Standard (ETSI), Extended Services (OS/2), (Red Hat Enterprise Linux) Enterprise Server (RedHat, Linux), Extra Segment (register, CPU, Intel, Assembler), разъём расширения, регистр дополнительного сегмента, стандарт в области электроники, экспертная система

27) Нефть: electrical sounding, electrical survey, emulsion stability, технические условия (engineering specifications), технические условия на оборудование (equipment specification), электрический каротаж (electrical survey), электроразведочная съёмка (electrical survey)

28) Космонавтика: Economic and Social Policy Department (FAO)

29) Биотехнология: Embryonic stem

30) Пищевая промышленность: Ecuadorian Salt

31) Фирменный знак: Executive Sedan

32) Экология: Exposure Scenario-Сценарий воздействия (REACH)

33) Сварка: Elongated Slag

34) SAP. категория сотрудников

35) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: electric survey

36) Образование: Environmental Science

37) Сетевые технологии: Enterprise Solution, electronic standard, end system, enterprise system, expansion slot, оконечная система, система масштаба предприятия

38) Полимеры: Electrochemical Society, electrostatic, engine sizing, engine-sized, even-sided

39) Программирование: Error Sources, Exit To Shell, Embedded System (Встроенная система)

40) Сахалин Р: electrical stability

41) Океанография: Earth Standard, Executive Secretariat

42) Научный термин: Emerging Science

43) Химическое оружие: Engineering Science, Incorporated

44) Макаров: earth station, emission spectroscopy

45) Безопасность: electronic shutter, electronic surveillance

46) SAP.тех. сектор экономики

47) Нефть и газ: Emergency Situation, electric log, electrical survey (log), emergency signal, emergency steamout

48) Электротехника: economy shutdown, electrostatic storage

49) Имена и фамилии: Edward Stanley

50) Общественная организация: Easter Seals

51) Должность: English Studies, Evil Stepmother

52) Чат: Even Steven

53) Правительство: Empire State, Eureka Springs

54) Единицы измерений: Exceeds standard, Extra Seconds

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > eS
12 strategy

n мен. стратегія; політика; поведінка; спосіб дії; a стратегічний

план і передбачений спосіб дії для виконання і забезпечення цілей компанії чи інших організацій

═════════■═════════

admissible strategy припустима стратегія; advertising strategy стратегія реклами • рекламна стратегія; available • доступна стратегія; bargaining strategy стратегія торгів • стратегія проведення торгів • стратегія переговорів; best strategy найкраща стратегія; bidding strategy стратегія торгів; brand extension strategy стратегія розширення марки; broad strategyies загальні стратегічні напрями; business strategy стратегія ділової активності; campaign strategy стратегія кампанії • стратегія рекламної кампанії; cautious strategy обережна стратегія; communication strategy стратегія комунікації; competitive strategy конкурентоспроможна стратегія • стратегія підходу до конкурентів; competitive marketing strategy маркетингова стратегія • підхід до конкурентів; composite strategy складова стратегія; copy strategy текстова стратегія • загальний підхід до тексту; core strategy основоположна стратегія • основна стратегія; corporate strategy стратегічний напрям фірми • загальнофірмова стратегія; corporate identity strategy стратегія фірмового стилю; creative strategy творча стратегія; development strategy стратегія розвитку; discount strategy стратегія зниження цін; distribution strategy стратегія розповсюдження товару; dominant strategy домінуюча стратегія; duplicated strategy дубльована стратегія; effective strategy ефективна стратегія; empirical strategy емпірична стратегія; entry strategy стратегія входу; equilibrium strategy стратегія рівноваги; essential strategy суттєва стратегія; expansion strategy стратегія розширення; experience-curve pricing strategy стратегія ціноутворення на основі кривої досвідченості; feedback strategy стратегія зі зворотним зв'язком; flexible strategy гнучка стратегія; follow-up strategy стратегія наступної роботи • додаткова стратегія • послідовна стратегія; forecasting strategy стратегія прогнозування; forward strategy наступальна стратегія; general strategy загальна стратегія; geographic pricing strategy стратегія ціноутворення за географічним принципом; good-value strategy стратегія якості; grim-trigger strategy стратегія «спускового гачка» • стратегія взаємодії компаній в умовах олігополії; growth strategy стратегія зростання; hard-line strategy жорстка стратегія; inadmissible strategy неприпустима стратегія; independent strategy незалежна стратегія; initial strategy початкова стратегія; interaction strategy стратегія взаємодії; interest-rate strategy стратегія відсоткової ставки; intervention strategy стратегія втручання; joint strategy спільна стратегія; linear strategy лінійна стратегія • математично обчислена стратегія; long-term strategy довгострокова стратегія • перспективна стратегія; management strategy стратегія менеджменту • стратегія управління виробництвом; market strategy ринкова стратегія; market coverage strategy стратегія охоплення ринку; market entry strategy стратегія входу на ринок; market expanding strategy стратегія розширення ринку; marketing strategy стратегія маркетингу • маркетингова стратегія; marketing mix strategy стратегія формування маркетингового комплексу; maximin strategy максимінна стратегія; media strategy стратегія вибору засобів реклами; message strategy стратегія звернення; milking strategy стратегія «видоювання» ринку; minimax strategy мінімаксна стратегія; mixed strategy змішана стратегія; monopoly strategy монополістична стратегія; multi-brand strategy багатомарочна стратегія; multistage strategy багатоступенева стратегія; nonoverlapping strategyies стратегії, які не перетинаються; optimal strategy оптимальна стратегія; ordering strategy порядок подання замовлень; overall sales strategy загальна стратегія збуту; penetration strategy стратегія проникнення; permissible strategy допустима стратегія; price strategy стратегія ціноутворення; pricing strategy стратегія ціноутворення; product strategy товарна політика • стратегія товару; production strategy стратегія виробництва; product-line strategy стратегія товарного асортименту; profit-taking strategy стратегія отримання максимально можливого прибутку; promotion strategy стратегія стимулювання • стратегія просування товару; public relations strategy стратегія громадських зв'язків; pull strategy; pure strategy чиста стратегія; push strategy; reach strategy стратегія охоплення; randomizing strategy випадкова стратегія • стратегія за правилами теорії вірогідності; replacement strategy стратегія поповнення запасів • порядок заміни устаткування; replenishment strategy стратегія поповнення запасів; rip-off strategy стратегія пограбування; sales strategy торговельна стратегія • збутова стратегія; sales-force strategy стратегія роботи торговельного апарату; scheduling strategy стратегія календарного планування • стратегія оперативного управління виробництвом; search strategy стратегія пошуку; segmentation strategy стратегія сегментації ринку • підхід до сегментації ринку; selling strategy торговельна стратегія; social change strategy стратегія суспільних змін; spending strategy стратегія витрат; stationary strategy статична стратегія; strict strategy чиста стратегія; team strategy колективний стратегічний підхід • гуртовий стратегічний підхід; technological strategy технологічна стратегія; thrifty strategy економічна стратегія; tit-for-tat strategy стратегія повторення ходів супротивника • стратегія «око за око»; upgrading strategy стратегія підняття рівня • стратегія підняття якісного рівня; winning strategy переможна стратегія

═════════□═════════

dominant strategy equilibrium рівновага домінуючої стратегії; strategy formulation формулювання стратегії; strategy of overcharging стратегія завищення цін; to carry out a strategy виконувати/виконати стратегію; to develop a strategy розробляти/розробити стратегію • розвивати/розвинути стратегію; to draw up strategy оформляти/оформити стратегію; to follow a strategy дотримуватися/дотриматися стратегії; to plan a strategy планувати/запланувати стратегію; to play a strategy застосовувати/застосувати стратегію; to pursue a strategy дотримуватися/дотриматися стратегії; to work out a strategy розробляти/розробити стратегію • розвивати/розвинути стратегію

* * *

стратегія ( відносно галузі або країни); основні напрями діяльності

The English-Ukrainian Dictionary > strategy
13 function

1) функция, действие || функционировать; действовать

- decision-making function
- essential functions - routine function - safety-related functions
2) функциональное назначение; роль

- auxiliary function
- circuit function - intrinsic function - metering function - primary function - robot function
- system function

3) функциональное подразделение ( предприятия)

- maintenance function
- planning function - service function - support function
4) функциональный узел ( машины)

- press function

5) матем. функциональная зависимость, функция

domain of a function — область определения функции, область изменения независимой переменной

function is periodic in — функция периодична по

function onto itself — отображение (функции) на себя

function vanishes — функция обращается в нуль

function with angular limit — функция с угловым пределом

function with vanishing derivative — функция с равной нулю производной

function without zeros — не обращающаяся в нуль функция

to be an explicit function of — зависеть явно от

to be an implicit function of — зависеть неявно от

- Abelian function

- absolute density function
- absolutely additive function - absolutely bounded function - absolutely continuous function - absolutely integrable function - absolutely monotone function - absolutely summable function - absolutely symmetric function
- abstract function

- accuracy function

- acidity function

- acyclic function

- additive random function

- advanced function

- affect function

- affine function

- algebraically definable function

- algebroid function

- almost bounded function
- almost complex function - almost continuous function - almost convex function - almost everywhere defined function - almost everywhere finite function - almost invariant function - almost periodic function - almost recursive function - almost separably-valued function - almost separating function - almost universal function
- alpha function

- alternating function

- ambiguous function

- analytically extended function
- analytically independent function - analytically representable function
- angle function

- antianalytic function

- antiholomorphic function

- antihyperbolic function

- antilinear function

- antiperiodic function

- antisymmetric function

- antitone function

- antitrigonometric function

- aperiodic function

- Appell function

- approximately continuous function
- approximately differentiable function
- arbitrary function

- arcus function

- area function

- arithmetical function

- arithmetically extensible function

- associated function

- asymmetric function

- asymptotic function

- asymptotical distribution function
- asymptotically differentiable function - asymptotically finite function - asymptotically uniformly optimal function
- atomic function

- attainability function

- autocovariance function

- autocovariance generating function

- automorphic function

- auxiliary function

- averaged function

- averaging function

- balayage function

- barrier function

- basis function

- behavioral function

- beta binomial function

- beta incomplete function

- biadditive function

- biaffine function

- bias function

- bicomplex function

- bicubic function

- biharmonic function

- biinvariant function

- bijective function

- bilinear function

- bimodal function

- bimultiplicative function

- binding function

- binomial distribution function

- binonlinear function

- biregular function

- biunique function

- bivariate function

- boundary characteristic function

- boundary characteristic function

- boundary function

- bounded above function
- bounded below function
- bounded function

- bracket function

- broad function

- broken-line function

- bulb function

- bump function

- canonical function

- canonically definable function

- capacity function

- carpeting function

- carrier function

- casino function

- causal function

- cellwise constant function
- cellwise continuous function
- centering function

- certain function

- chain function

- chance function

- chi-square function

- choice function

- chord function

- chromatic function

- circularly symmetric function
- circumferentially mean p-valent function
- class function

- close to convex function

- cluster function

- clutching function

- codimension function

- coefficient function

- coercive function

- cofinite function

- coherence function

- collapsing function

- color function

- combinatorial function

- combined function

- commutator function

- compact function

- compactly supported function

- compact-valued function

- comparative function
- comparison function - complementary error function
- complementary function

- complementary trigonometric function
- complete analytic function - completely additive function - completely computable function - completely monotone function - completely multiplicative function - completely productive function - completely subadditive function - completely symmetrical function - completely undefined function - complex hyperbolic function
- complex-valued function

- complicated function

- component function

- composite function

- computably ambiguous function

- concave-convex function

- concentrated function

- concentration function

- concordant function

- conditional power function
- conditional risk function
- cone function

- confluent function

- confluent hypergeometric function

- congruence function

- conical function

- conjugate function

- connecting function

- consistent function

- constant-preserving function

- constrained function

- constraint function

- constructive function

- constructively nonrecursive function

- consumption function

- content function

- contiguous function

- continuously differentiable function

- continuum function

- contracting function

- contraction function

- contrast transfer function

- convergent function

- converse function

- convex-concave function

- cosecant function

- cosine function

- cospectral function

- cost function

- cosuperharmonic function

- cotangent function

- countably additive function
- countably multiplicative function - countably valued function
- counting function

- course-of-value function

- covariance function
- covariant function
- cramp function

- created function

- creating function

- criterion function

- critical function

- crosscorrelation function

- cross-covariance function

- cross-variance function

- cumulant function

- cumulant generating function
- cumulative distribution function - cumulative frequency function
- cup function

- curvilinear function

- cuspidal function

- cyclically monotone function

- cyclometric function

- cylinder function

- decay function

- decoding function

- decomposable function

- decomposing function

- defect function
- deficiency function
- deficient function

- degenerate function

- delta function

- denumerably-valued function

- dependence function

- depletion function

- derived function

- descriptive function

- design function

- determinate function

- diagonal function

- diagonalization function

- dibeta function

- difference function

- differential function

- digamma function

- dilogarithmic function

- dimensional function

- dimensionless function

- directing function

- discontinuous function

- discrete function

- discriminant function

- disjoined function

- dispersion function

- dissipative function

- distance function

- disturbing function

- ditonic function

- divergence-free vector function

- divergent function

- divisor function

- dominant function

- donor function

- don't care function
- double limit function
- double-spectral function

- double-valued function

- doubly orthogonal function
- doubly periodic function - doubly recursive function
- dual function

- dyadic function

- effective function

- effectively calculable function
- effectively computable function - effectively constant function - effectively decidable function - effectively variable function
- effectiveness function

- efficiency function

- elementarily recursive function
- elementarily symmetric function
- ellipsoidal function

- elliptic cylinder function

- empirical function

- empty function

- encoding function

- endogeneous function

- entire function of finite type
- entire function of maximum type - entire function of mean type - entire function of potential type - entire function of zero type - entire rational function
- entropy function

- enumerating function

- enumeration function

- envelope function

- equal-ripple function

- equibounded function

- equilibrium function

- equivalence function

- essentially bounded function
- essentially increasing function - essentially integrable function - essentially real function - essentially smooth function
- estimable function

- estimating function

- everywhere continuous function
- everywhere differentiable function - everywhere smooth function
- excessive function

- excitation function

- exhaustion function

- expandable function
- expansible function
- expansion function

- expansive function

- expectation function

- expenditure function

- explicitly bounded function
- explicitly definable function - exponentially convex function - exponentially decreasing function - exponentially increasing function - exponentially multiplicative function - exponentially vanishing function
- extendable function

- extended function

- extensional function

- exterior function

- extremal function

- extremized function

- extremum function

- factor function

- factorable function

- factored function

- factorial function

- fatigue function

- feably oscillating function

- featureless function

- field function

- filter function

- filtration function

- final state function

- finitary function

- finite-dimensional function

- finitely additive function
- finitely mean valent function - finitely measurable function
- finite-path function

- fitted function

- flat function

- flow function

- force function

- forcing function

- forecast function

- formally ordered function

- fractional function

- frequency distribution function

- frequency function

- full function

- fully closed function

- function of a single variable
- function of appropriate behavior - function of bounded characteristic - function of bounded type - function of bounded variation - function of complex variable - function of exponential type - function of finite genus - function of finite variation - function of fractional order
- function of function

- function of high smoothness
- function of infinite type - function of integral order
- function of intervals

- function of matrix

- function of maximal growth
- function of maximal type - function of minimal type - function of mixed variables - function of normal type - function of number theory - function of one variable
- function of phase

- function of position

- function of random variable
- function of rapid descent - function of rapid growth - function of real variable
- function of set

- function of several complex variables

- function of singularities

- function of state

- function of support

- function of time

- function of transition

- function of two variables

- fundamental function

- fuzzy function

- gage function

- gage-like function

- game function

- general recursive function
- general universal function - geometric carrier function
- given function

- global defining function

- goniometric function

- grammatical function

- graph-valued function

- greatest-integer function

- group function

- group-reduction function

- growth function

- halo function

- harmonizable function

- height-gain function

- hemicylindrical function

- Herglotz function

- heuristic function

- higher function

- homographic function

- homology function

- homotopic function

- hyperanalytic function

- hyperarithmetical function

- hyperbolic cylinder function

- hypercomplex function

- hyperelliptic function

- hyperharmonic function

- hyperrank function

- hyperspherical function

- hypertranscendental function

- hypoanalytic function

- ideal function

- imaginary function

- immediate successor function
- implicitly definable function
- improper function

- impulse function

- inclusion function

- inclusive function

- incomplete beta function
- incomplete dibeta function - incomplete gamma function - incomplete tribeta function - incompletely defined function
- increment function

- indecomposable function

- indefinite function

- index function

- indicial function

- individual function

- induced function

- inductive function

- inductively definable function
- inductively defined function - inductively integrable function
- infinite function

- infinitely differentiable function
- infinitely divisible function - infinitely many-valued function
- infinitesimal function

- information function

- information-packing function

- initial function

- injective function

- inner function

- input function

- insolvency function

- integrable function

- integral function of mean type
- integral logarithmic function
- integrating function

- intensity function

- interior function

- intermediary function

- interpolating function

- interpolatory function

- interval function

- inverse hyperbolic function
- inverse trigonometric function - inverted beta function
- invertible function

- irrational function

- irreducible function

- irregular function

- isotone function

- iterated function

- iteration function
- iterative function - joint correlation function - joint density function
- kernel function

- kinked function

- knapsack function

- lacunary function

- lambda function

- lattice function

- Lauricella function

- left-continuous function

- left-invariant function

- left-invertible function

- lexical function

- lifting function

- likelihood function

- limit of function

- limitable function

- limiting function

- linear discriminant function

- linearized function

- linearly dependent function
- linearly separable function
- local function

- locally analytic function

- locally approximable function
- locally bounded function - locally constant function - locally holomorphic function - locally homogeneous function - locally integrable function - locally negligible function - locally regular function - locally summable function - logarithmic generating function - logarithmic integral function
- logarithmically concave function

- logarithmically convex function
- logarithmically infinite function - logarithmically plurisubharmonic function - logarithmically subharmonic function
- logarithmico-exponential function

- logical addition function

- logical function

- logical multiplication function

- logistic function

- log-likelihood function

- loss-of-utility function

- lower closed function

- lower function

- lower measurable function
- lower semicontinuous function
- majorizing function

- many-valued function

- mapping function

- marginal distribution function

- mathematical function

- matrix function

- matrix-convex function

- maximal function

- mean-value function

- measurable function

- measure function

- measure-limited function

- mechanically computable function

- member function

- meromorphic function

- mesh function

- metaharmonic function

- metapragmatic function

- metasemantic function

- metaspherical function

- minimal function

- minimizing function

- minimum function

- minority function

- mixing function

- modified function

- modular function

- molecular set function

- moment generating function

- moment-generating function

- monochromatic function

- monodromic function

- monogenic function

- monomial function

- monomially alternating function
- monotone non-decreasing function - monotone non-increasing function
- monotonic function

- multiaffine function

- multiconstrained function

- multidimensional function

- multiextremal function

- multilinear function

- multiplace function

- multiple valued function

- multiplicity function

- multiplier function

- multiply harmonic function
- multiply periodic function - multiply recursive function
- multithreshold function

- multivalent function

- multivalued function

- multivariable function

- multivariant function

- mutual covariance function

- n-ary function

- nearly continuous function
- negative definite function - negative infinite function
- negligible function

- never-decreasing function

- never-increasing function

- next-state function

- nice function

- n-linear function

- n-metacaloric function

- noise function

- nomographic function

- nonanalytic function

- nonanticipative random function

- nonatomic function

- nonbounded function

- nonconstant function

- nondecreasing function

- nondegenerate function

- nondifferentiable function

- nonelementary function

- nonharmonizable function

- nonincreasing function

- noniterated function

- nonlattice function

- nonmonotonic function

- nonnegative definite function

- nonnegative function

- nonpositive function

- nonrandom function

- nonrecursive function

- nonsymmetrical density function
- nontangentially bounded function
- nontrivial function

- nonvanishing function

- norm function

- normalizable function

- normalized coherence function
- normalized function - normed function - nowhere continuous function - nowhere differentiable function - nowhere monotonic function
- n-place function

- n-point function

- n-th order function
- n-times differentiable function - n-tuply periodic function
- null function

- number-theoretical function

- numeralwise decidable function
- numeralwise expressible function - numeralwise representable function - numerical function - numerically valued function - oblate spheroidal function
- observation function

- odd function

- omega function

- one-loop function

- one-parameter function

- one-periodic function

- one-place function

- one-sheeted function

- one-sided function

- one-step function

- one-valued function

- one-variable function

- open propositional function
- operating characteristic function
- operative function

- operator function

- optimal decision function
- optimal policy function
- optimizable function

- optimized function

- order function

- order of function

- order preserving function

- orderable function

- ordered function

- ordering function

- ordinal function

- orientation function

- original function

- orthonormal function

- oscillating function

- oscillatory function

- outcome function

- outer function

- p-adic function

- pair correlation function

- pairing function

- parabolical cylinder function
- parametrically definable function
- parametrization function

- parametrized function

- partially computable function

- partially differentiable function

- partially recursive function
- partially symmetric function
- partition function

- partition preserving function

- partitionable function

- patch function

- pattern function

- peaked function

- peakless function

- Pearcey function

- penalty function

- pentagamma function

- permanent function

- perturbation function

- phase function

- phi function

- picture function

- piecewise analytic function
- piecewise constant function - piecewise continuously differentiable function
- piecewise continuously differentiable function

- piecewise expanding function
- piecewise linear function - piecewise monotonic function - piecewise polynomial function - piecewise quadratic function - piecewise regular function - piecewise smooth function
- plotted function

- pluriharmonic function

- plurisubharmonic function

- plurisublinear function

- plurisuperharmonic function

- point spread function
- pointwise approximated function
- pointwise bounded function

- pointwise discontinuous function

- policy function

- polyanalytic function

- polydromic function

- polygamma function

- polygenic function

- polygonal function

- polyhedral function

- polymorphic function

- polynomial clutching function

- polynomial function

- polynomially bounded function

- portfolio function

- posinomial function

- positive definite function
- positive homogeneous function - positive infinite function - positive monotone function - positive monotonic function - positive semidefinite function - potentially calculable function - potentially recursive function - power series function
- predetermined function

- predicate function

- predicate preserving function

- predual function

- premeromorphic function

- prescribed function

- primal function

- primary function

- prime-divisor function

- primitively recursive function

- principal function

- probability density function
- probability generating function
- process function

- product function

- production function

- productive function

- profit function

- projection function

- projective function

- propagation function

- proximally continuous function

- proximity function

- pseudoanalytic function

- pseudoconcave function

- pseudoconjugate function

- pseudoconvex function

- pseudodifferentiable function

- pseudoelliptic function

- pseudoharmonic function

- pseudohyperanalytic function

- pseudolikelihood function

- pseudolinear function

- pseudoperiodic function

- pseudopotential function

- pseudoproper function

- pseudorandom function

- pure quadratic function

- quadratic function

- quadratically integrable function
- quadratically summable function
- quantile function

- quasiaffine function

- quasialgebraic function

- quasianalytic function

- quasibounded function

- quasiconcave function

- quasiconformal function

- quasicontinuous function

- quasiconvex function

- quasidifferentiable function

- quasidoubly periodic function

- quasielliptic function

- quasiexcessive function

- quasiexponential function

- quasiharmonic function

- quasihomogeneous function

- quasiinterpolating function

- quasimonotonic function

- quasiperiodic function

- quasipolynomial function

- quasiradial function

- quasirecursive function

- quasiseparable function

- quasismooth function

- quasistandard function

- quasistar function

- quasisummation function

- quasiuniformly continuous function

- quasiunimodal function

- quaternion function

- radially symmetric function

- ramification function

- ramified function

- randomized decision function
- rapidly damped function - rapidly decreasing function - rapidly oscillatory function
- ray function

- Rayleigh dissipation function

- real-definite function

- real-valued function

- recession function

- reciprocal function

- recover function

- rectangle function

- recursively calculable function
- recursively continuous function - recursively convergent function - recursively defined function - recursively differentiable function - recursively divergent function - recursively extensible function
- reduced function

- regression function

- regret function

- regularized function

- regularly varying function

- regulated function

- relation reserving function
- relative distribution function - relative frequency function
- remuneration function

- renewal function

- renormalized function

- repeatedly differentiable function

- representable function

- representative function
- representing function - reproducing kernel function - residual function - residue function
- resolutive function

- resolvent function

- restricted function

- restricting function

- retarded function

- retracting function

- ridge function

- Riemann zeta function

- right-continuous function

- right-invariant function

- roof function

- root-mean-square function

- rudimentary function

- ruin function

- ruled function

- saddle function

- saltus function

- sample distribution function

- sampling function

- sandwich function

- scalar analytical function
- scalarwise integrable function - scalarwise measurable function
- scedastic function

- scheme function

- schlicht function

- search function

- section of function

- sectionally continuous function
- sectionally smooth function
- selective function

- self-dual function

- self-indexing function

- self-reciprocal function

- semiarithmetical function

- semicoercive function

- semicontinuous function

- semicylindrical function

- semidefinite function

- semiintegrable function

- semiinvariant function

- semimodular function

- semimultiplicative function

- semiproductive function

- semispectral function

- semisymmetric function

- sentential function

- separably valued function

- separately continuous function

- separation function

- sequence function

- sequential function

- sequentially continuous function

- set-preserving function

- set-valued function

- shape function

- sharp function

- shifted function

- sifting function

- sigma function

- signaling function

- simple function

- simply measurable function
- simply periodic function
- single-humped function

- singly periodic function
- singly recursive function
- singular function

- singularity function

- sinusoidal function

- skew-symmetric function

- slowly decreasing function
- slowly increasing function - slowly oscillating function - slowly varying function - smoothly varying function - solid spherical harmonic function - solid zonal harmonic function
- source function

- sourcewise representable function

- space-dependent function

- space-time function

- spannable function

- spheroidal function

- spinor-valued function

- spline function

- square-integrable function

- square-sine function

- square-summable function

- stability function

- stable function

- starlike function

- star-shaped function

- stationary random function

- statistical function

- status function

- steadily decreasing function
- steadily increasing function
- stiff function

- stochastic function

- stochastic transition function
- stopped random function
- straight-line function

- stream function

- streamline function

- strength function

- stretch function

- strictly concave function
- strictly convex function - strictly decreasing function - strictly increasing function - strictly integrable function - strictly monotone function
- stroke function

- strongly continuous function
- strongly differentiable function - strongly holomorphic function - strongly integrable function - strongly measurable function - strongly plurisubharmonic function
- structure function

- subadditive function

- subdifferentiable function

- subintegral function

- subinvariant function

- submultiplicative function

- suboperative function

- suboptimized function

- subordinated function

- subparabolic function

- subregular function

- success function

- sufficiently differentiable function

- sum function

- summatory function

- superadditive function

- supercaloric function

- supercontinuous function

- supermedian function

- supermultiplicative function

- superparabolic function

- superregular function

- surface function

- surjective function

- switching function

- symbolic function

- symmetrizable function

- symmetrized function

- tabulated function

- tame function

- tangential function

- target function

- temperate function

- temperature function

- tempered function

- tensor function

- ternary function

- tesseral function

- tetrachoric function

- tetragamma function

- time-limited function

- time-varying function

- tissue function

- toroidal function

- torus function

- total function

- total recursive function
- totally additive function - totally continuous function - totally measurable function - totally multiplicative function - totally positive function
- totient function

- tower function

- trace function

- transferable function

- transfinite function

- transformation function

- transition probability function

- translation function

- translation invariant function

- transmission function

- trapezoidal function

- trend function

- trial function

- triangle function
- triangular function
- tribeta function

- trigamma function

- trilinear function

- true function

- truncated function

- truncation function

- twice differentiable function

- twistor function

- two-parameter function

- two-place function

- two-point function

- two-sided function

- typically real function

- ultradifferentiable function

- ultraspherical function

- unbounded function

- uncertainty function

- uncomputable function

- unconditionally summable function

- unconstrained function

- undecomposable function

- undefined function

- uneven function

- uniform function

- uniformizing function

- uniformly approximable function
- uniformly best decision function - uniformly bounded function - uniformly definable function - uniformly differentiable function - uniformly homotopic function - uniformly integrable function - uniformly limited function - uniformly measurable function - uniformly smooth function
- unimodular function

- uniquely nomographic function

- unisolvent function

- unit function

- unit impulse function
- unit step function - unitary divisor function
- univalent function

- univariate function

- universally measurable function

- unknown function

- unramified function

- upper closed function
- upper measurable function - upper semicontinuous function
- valuation function

- vector-valued function

- vertex function

- voting function

- weakly additive function
- weakly analytic function - weakly continuous function - weakly differentiable function - weakly holomorphic function - weakly measurable function - weakly singular function - weighted random function
- well-behaved function

- well-integrable function

- window function

- wrapping function

- wurzelfrei function

- zero function

- zonal spherical function

English-Russian scientific dictionary > function
14 game

1) игра || играть

2) партия ( в игре)

•

bending of the game — выигрыш

game in an extensive form — игра в развёрнутой форме, позиционная игра

game in a normal form — игра в нормальной форме

game in a reduced form — игра в приведённой форме, приведённая игра

game is a draw — игра закончилась вничью

game on square — игра на квадрате

game on graph — игра на графе

game over a unit square — игра на единичном квадрате

game with almost perfect information — игра с почти полной информацией

game with complete information — игра с полной информацией

game with constant cost — игра с постоянной стоимостью

game with constant sum — игра с постоянной суммой

game with constraints — игра с ограничениями

game with continuous kernel — игра с непрерывным ядром

game with delayed information — игра с запаздывающей информацией

game with equilibrium pairs — игра с уравновешенными парами

game with equilibrium points — игра с точками равновесия

game with feedback — рекурсивная игра

game with finite resources — игра с конечными ресурсами

game with hierarchical structure — игра с иерархической структурой

game with ideal recall — игра с идеальной памятью

game with identical interests — игра с одинаковыми интересами

game with infinitely many strategies — игра с бесконечным множеством стратегий

game with information lag — игра с запаздыванием информации

game with kernel — игра с ядром

game with misperceptions — игра при ошибочных предположениях

game with moving craft — игра с движущимся объектом

game with negative payoffs — игра с отрицательными платежами

game with negative value — игра с отрицательной ценой

game with no value — не имеющая цены игра

game with oblivion — игра с забыванием

game with perfect information — игра с полной информацией

game with positive payoffs — игра с положительными платежами

game with quota — игра с квотой

game with saddle point — игра с седловой точкой

game with single experiment — игра с единичным испытанием

game with value — имеющая цену игра

game without constraints — игра без ограничений, свободная игра

game without equilibrium pairs — игра без уравновешенных пар

game without saddle point — игра без седловой точки

game without side payments — игра без побочных платежей

game without value — не имеющая цены игра

worth of game — цена игры

to play the waiting game — выжидать

- absolute game

- absolutely fair game

- abstract game

- achievement game

- additive game

- advantageous game

- algebraic game

- alliance game

- allocation game

- almost cooperative game
- almost unanimity game
- antagonistic game

- arbitrary game

- atomic game

- attack-defence game

- augmented game

- autonomous game

- auxiliary game

- avoidance game

- balanced game

- ball and cell game

- bargaining game

- basic game

- battle game

- bidding game

- bilinear game

- bimatrix game

- butterfly game

- butterfly-shaped game

- card game

- cautious game

- chance-constrained game

- circular symmetric game

- clear game

- closed game

- coalition game

- coalition-free game

- coin guessing game
- coin matching game - coin tossing game
- combat game

- competitive game

- completely mixed game
- completely reduced game
- composite game

- compound game

- computer-assisted game

- concave game

- concave-convex game

- constrained game
- constraint game
- continuous game

- convex-concave game

- counterfait coin game

- cutthroat game

- decision making game

- degenerate game

- derived game

- determined game

- deterministic game

- diagonal game

- dialogical game

- difference game

- differential game

- dilemma game

- discounted game

- discrete game

- dual-homogeneous game

- dynamic game

- economic game

- economic ruin game

- end game

- equitable game

- essential game

- evasion game

- evolutionary operation game

- expansion of game

- experimental game

- extended game

- favorable game

- finitary game

- finite dimensional game
- fixed sample-size game
- flexible game

- four-person game

- fuzzy game

- game of billiards

- game of chance

- game of craps

- game of degree

- game of dice

- game of exhaustion

- game of fair division
- game of harmstrung squad car - game of heads or tails
- game of kalah

- game of kind

- game of luck

- game of matching pennies
- game of odd man out - game of pure chance - game of pursuit and evasion
- game of pursuit

- game of snap

- game of strategy

- game of timing

- general game

- generalized game

- graph interpretable game

- guessing game

- hand-played game

- heuristic game

- homicidal chauffeur game
- identification of friend and foe game
- imitation game

- impartial game

- improper game

- inessential game

- infinite move game
- inherently unstable game
- inspection game

- insurance game

- interactive game

- isomorphic game

- iterated game

- last-player-winning game

- learning game

- liar dice game
- locally bounded game - locally finite game - machine played game
- majorant game

- manual game

- mathematical game

- maximal atomic game

- maximization game

- military game

- minimization game

- mixed strategy game

- monadic game

- more-than-two-persons game

- multicomponent game

- multidecision game

- multimove game

- multiple game

- multistage search game

- negotiated game

- network game

- n-move game

- nonatomic game

- nonconstant sum game

- noncooperative game

- noncooperative game

- nonfinitary game

- nonrecursive game

- nonstrategic game

- nonstrictly competitive game
- nonstrictly determined game
- nonsymmetric game

- normalized game

- no-solution game

- number game

- odd-even game

- oligopol game

- one chance pursuit game

- one-component game

- one-move game

- one-person game
- one-player game
- one-sided game

- open game

- ordered set game

- ordinary game

- original game

- pair game

- parlor game

- passive game

- pathological game

- permutational game

- pick-a-number game

- poker game

- pokerlike game

- polyhedral game

- polymatrix game

- progressively finite game

- projective game

- pure strategy game

- pursuit game

- pursuit-evasion game

- qualitative game

- quantitative game

- quasidiscrete game

- quick game

- quota game

- random game

- reasonable game

- rectangular game

- reduced game

- repetitive game

- resource game

- rigid game

- ruin game

- scalar measure game

- search game

- semicooperative game

- semidiscrete game

- semidynamic game

- semisimple game

- sequence game

- simultaneous-move game

- single-experiment game

- smoothed game

- solvable game

- stable game

- standard game

- statistical game

- stochastic game

- strategically equivalent games
- strictly solvable game
- strong game

- superadditive game

- survival game

- switching game

- symmetrical game

- tactical game

- take-away game

- terminal game

- terminating game
- termination game
- tic-tac-toe-like game

- topological game

- trapezoidal game

- tree searching game

- trilogic game

- truncated game

- truncated sequential game

- truncation of game

- two person cooperative game
- two-person game - two-player game
- two-sided game

- unbiased differential game

- unconstrained game

- unfair game

- unfavorable game

- unhomogeneous game

- uniform game

- univalent game

- unsolvable game

- unsymmetric game

- variable-sum game

- voting game

- war game

- weakly balanced game
- weighted majority game - zero-sum two-person game

English-Russian scientific dictionary > game
15 Introduction

   Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.

   Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.

   Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.

   Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).

   Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.

   Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.

   LAND AND PEOPLE

   The Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).

   For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.

   Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into the

   Atlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.

   Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:

   1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)

   1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)

   1864 4,287,000 first census

   1890 5,049,700

   1900 5,423,000

   1911 5,960,000

   1930 6,826,000

   1940 7,185,143

   1950 8,510,000

   1960 8,889,000

   1970 8,668,000* note decrease

   1980 9,833,000

   1991 9,862,540

   1996 9,934,100

   2006 10,642,836

   2010 10,710,000 (estimated)

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Introduction
16 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
17 Crompton, Samuel

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

b. 3 December 1753 Firwood, near Bolton, Lancashire, England

d. 26 June 1827 Bolton, Lancashire, England

[br]

English inventor of the spinning mule.

[br]

Samuel Crompton was the son of a tenant farmer, George, who became the caretaker of the old house Hall-i-th-Wood, near Bolton, where he died in 1759. As a boy, Samuel helped his widowed mother in various tasks at home, including weaving. He liked music and made his own violin, with which he later was to earn some money to pay for tools for building his spinning mule. He was set to work at spinning and so in 1769 became familiar with the spinning jenny designed by James Hargreaves; he soon noticed the poor quality of the yarn produced and its tendency to break. Crompton became so exasperated with the jenny that in 1772 he decided to improve it. After seven years' work, in 1779 he produced his famous spinning "mule". He built the first one entirely by himself, principally from wood. He adapted rollers similar to those already patented by Arkwright for drawing out the cotton rovings, but it seems that he did not know of Arkwright's invention. The rollers were placed at the back of the mule and paid out the fibres to the spindles, which were mounted on a moving carriage that was drawn away from the rollers as the yarn was paid out. The spindles were rotated to put in twist. At the end of the draw, or shortly before, the rollers were stopped but the spindles continued to rotate. This not only twisted the yarn further, but slightly stretched it and so helped to even out any irregularities; it was this feature that gave the mule yarn extra quality. Then, after the spindles had been turned backwards to unwind the yarn from their tips, they were rotated in the spinning direction again and the yarn was wound on as the carriage was pushed up to the rollers.

The mule was a very versatile machine, making it possible to spin almost every type of yarn. In fact, Samuel Crompton was soon producing yarn of a much finer quality than had ever been spun in Bolton, and people attempted to break into Hall-i-th-Wood to see how he produced it. Crompton did not patent his invention, perhaps because it consisted basically of the essential features of the earlier machines of Hargreaves and Arkwright, or perhaps through lack of funds. Under promise of a generous subscription, he disclosed his invention to the spinning industry, but was shabbily treated because most of the promised money was never paid. Crompton's first mule had forty-eight spindles, but it did not long remain in its original form for many people started to make improvements to it. The mule soon became more popular than Arkwright's waterframe because it could spin such fine yarn, which enabled weavers to produce the best muslin cloth, rivalling that woven in India and leading to an enormous expansion in the British cotton-textile industry. Crompton eventually saved enough capital to set up as a manufacturer himself and around 1784 he experimented with an improved carding engine, although he was not successful. In 1800, local manufacturers raised a sum of £500 for him, and eventually in 1812 he received a government grant of £5,000, but this was trifling in relation to the immense financial benefits his invention had conferred on the industry, to say nothing of his expenses. When Crompton was seeking evidence in 1811 to support his claim for financial assistance, he found that there were 4,209,570 mule spindles compared with 155,880 jenny and 310,516 waterframe spindles. He later set up as a bleacher and again as a cotton manufacturer, but only the gift of a small annuity by his friends saved him from dying in total poverty.

[br]

Further Reading

H.C.Cameron, 1951, Samuel Crompton, Inventor of the Spinning Mule, London (a rather discursive biography).

Dobson \& Barlow Ltd, 1927, Samuel Crompton, the Inventor of the Spinning Mule, Bolton.

G.J.French, 1859, The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton, Inventor of the Spinning Machine Called the Mule, London.

The invention of the mule is fully described in H. Gatling, 1970, The Spinning Mule, Newton Abbot; W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London; R.L.Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester.

C.Singer (ed.), 1958, A History of Technology, Vol. IV, Oxford: Clarendon Press (provides a brief account).

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Crompton, Samuel
18 Philosophy

   1) There Are Ideas That Have Their Own True and Immutable Nature

   And what I believe to be more important here is that I find in myself an infinity of ideas of certain things which cannot be assumed to be pure nothingness, even though they may have perhaps no existence outside of my thought. These things are not figments of my imagination, even though it is within my power to think of them or not to think of them; on the contrary, they have their own true and immutable natures. Thus, for example, when I imagine a triangle, even though there may perhaps be no such figure anywhere in the world outside of my thought, nor ever have been, nevertheless the figure cannot help having a certain determinate nature... or essence, which is immutable and eternal, which I have not invented and which does not in any way depend upon my mind. (Descartes, 1951, p. 61)

   2) Examine What Is within Our Reach

   Let us console ourselves for not knowing the possible connections between a spider and the rings of Saturn, and continue to examine what is within our reach. (Voltaire, 1961, p. 144)

   3) Modern Philosophy Starts with the Cartesian Catastrophe

   As modern physics started with the Newtonian revolution, so modern philosophy starts with what one might call the Cartesian Catastrophe. The catastrophe consisted in the splitting up of the world into the realms of matter and mind, and the identification of "mind" with conscious thinking. The result of this identification was the shallow rationalism of l'esprit Cartesien, and an impoverishment of psychology which it took three centuries to remedy even in part. (Koestler, 1964, p. 148)

   4) The Rightful Claims of Philosophy

   It has been made of late a reproach against natural philosophy that it has struck out on a path of its own, and has separated itself more and more widely from the other sciences which are united by common philological and historical studies. The opposition has, in fact, been long apparent, and seems to me to have grown up mainly under the inﬂuence of the Hegelian philosophy, or, at any rate, to have been brought out into more distinct relief by that philosophy.... The sole object of Kant's "Critical Philosophy" was to test the sources and the authority of our knowledge, and to fix a definite scope and standard for the researches of philosophy, as compared with other sciences.... [But Hegel's] "Philosophy of Identity" was bolder. It started with the hypothesis that not only spiritual phenomena, but even the actual world-nature, that is, and man-were the result of an act of thought on the part of a creative mind, similar, it was supposed, in kind to the human mind.... The philosophers accused the scientific men of narrowness; the scientific men retorted that the philosophers were crazy. And so it came about that men of science began to lay some stress on the banishment of all philosophic inﬂuences from their work; while some of them, including men of the greatest acuteness, went so far as to condemn philosophy altogether, not merely as useless, but as mischievous dreaming. Thus, it must be confessed, not only were the illegitimate pretensions of the Hegelian system to subordinate to itself all other studies rejected, but no regard was paid to the rightful claims of philosophy, that is, the criticism of the sources of cognition, and the definition of the functions of the intellect. (Helmholz, quoted in Dampier, 1966, pp. 291-292)

   5) The Philosophy of Philosophy

   Philosophy remains true to its classical tradition by renouncing it. (Habermas, 1972, p. 317)

   6) Philosophy Is a Field Which Has Certain Central Questions

   I have not attempted... to put forward any grand view of the nature of philosophy; nor do I have any such grand view to put forth if I would. It will be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the history of "howlers" and progress in philosophy as the debunking of howlers. It will also be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the enterprise of putting forward a priori truths about the world.... I see philosophy as a field which has certain central questions, for example, the relation between thought and reality.... It seems obvious that in dealing with these questions philosophers have formulated rival research programs, that they have put forward general hypotheses, and that philosophers within each major research program have modified their hypotheses by trial and error, even if they sometimes refuse to admit that that is what they are doing. To that extent philosophy is a "science." To argue about whether philosophy is a science in any more serious sense seems to me to be hardly a useful occupation.... It does not seem to me important to decide whether science is philosophy or philosophy is science as long as one has a conception of both that makes both essential to a responsible view of the world and of man's place in it. (Putnam, 1975, p. xvii)

   7) The Central Task of Philosophy

   What can philosophy contribute to solving the problem of the relation [of] mind to body? Twenty years ago, many English-speaking philosophers would have answered: "Nothing beyond an analysis of the various mental concepts." If we seek knowledge of things, they thought, it is to science that we must turn. Philosophy can only cast light upon our concepts of those things.

   This retreat from things to concepts was not undertaken lightly. Ever since the seventeenth century, the great intellectual fact of our culture has been the incredible expansion of knowledge both in the natural and in the rational sciences (mathematics, logic).

   The success of science created a crisis in philosophy. What was there for philosophy to do? Hume had already perceived the problem in some degree, and so surely did Kant, but it was not until the twentieth century, with the Vienna Circle and with Wittgenstein, that the difficulty began to weigh heavily. Wittgenstein took the view that philosophy could do no more than strive to undo the intellectual knots it itself had tied, so achieving intellectual release, and even a certain illumination, but no knowledge. A little later, and more optimistically, Ryle saw a positive, if reduced role, for philosophy in mapping the "logical geography" of our concepts: how they stood to each other and how they were to be analyzed....

   Since that time, however, philosophers in the "analytic" tradition have swung back from Wittgensteinian and even Rylean pessimism to a more traditional conception of the proper role and tasks of philosophy. Many analytic philosophers now would accept the view that the central task of philosophy is to give an account, or at least play a part in giving an account, of the most general nature of things and of man. (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 37-38)

   8) Philosophy's Evolving Engagement with Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science

   In the beginning, the nature of philosophy's engagement with artificial intelligence and cognitive science was clear enough. The new sciences of the mind were to provide the long-awaited vindication of the most potent dreams of naturalism and materialism. Mind would at last be located firmly within the natural order. We would see in detail how the most perplexing features of the mental realm could be supported by the operations of solely physical laws upon solely physical stuff. Mental causation (the power of, e.g., a belief to cause an action) would emerge as just another species of physical causation. Reasoning would be understood as a kind of automated theorem proving. And the key to both was to be the depiction of the brain as the implementation of multiple higher level programs whose task was to manipulate and transform symbols or representations: inner items with one foot in the physical (they were realized as brain states) and one in the mental (they were bearers of contents, and their physical gymnastics were cleverly designed to respect semantic relationships such as truth preservation). (A. Clark, 1996, p. 1)

   9) The Enduring Value of Philosophy

   Socrates of Athens famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living," and his motto aptly explains the impulse to philosophize. Taking nothing for granted, philosophy probes and questions the fundamental presuppositions of every area of human inquiry.... [P]art of the job of the philosopher is to keep at a certain critical distance from current doctrines, whether in the sciences or the arts, and to examine instead how the various elements in our world-view clash, or fit together. Some philosophers have tried to incorporate the results of these inquiries into a grand synoptic view of the nature of reality and our human relationship to it. Others have mistrusted system-building, and seen their primary role as one of clarifications, or the removal of obstacles along the road to truth. But all have shared the Socratic vision of using the human intellect to challenge comfortable preconceptions, insisting that every aspect of human theory and practice be subjected to continuing critical scrutiny....

   Philosophy is, of course, part of a continuing tradition, and there is much to be gained from seeing how that tradition originated and developed. But the principal object of studying the materials in this book is not to pay homage to past genius, but to enrich one's understanding of central problems that are as pressing today as they have always been-problems about knowledge, truth and reality, the nature of the mind, the basis of right action, and the best way to live. These questions help to mark out the territory of philosophy as an academic discipline, but in a wider sense they define the human predicament itself; they will surely continue to be with us for as long as humanity endures. (Cottingham, 1996, pp. xxi-xxii)

    10) The Distinction between Dionysian Man and Apollonian Man, between Art and Creativity and Reason and Self- Control

   In his study of ancient Greek culture, The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche drew what would become a famous distinction, between the Dionysian spirit, the untamed spirit of art and creativity, and the Apollonian, that of reason and self-control. The story of Greek civilization, and all civilizations, Nietzsche implied, was the gradual victory of Apollonian man, with his desire for control over nature and himself, over Dionysian man, who survives only in myth, poetry, music, and drama. Socrates and Plato had attacked the illusions of art as unreal, and had overturned the delicate cultural balance by valuing only man's critical, rational, and controlling consciousness while denigrating his vital life instincts as irrational and base. The result of this division is "Alexandrian man," the civilized and accomplished Greek citizen of the later ancient world, who is "equipped with the greatest forces of knowledge" but in whom the wellsprings of creativity have dried up. (Herman, 1997, pp. 95-96)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Philosophy
19 bus

n

1) (електро)шина

2) (широкофюзеляжний) пасажирський літак, аеробус

3) канал передавання інформації;

◊

to deenergize the bus — знеструмлювати (електро)шину

to energize the bus — подати живлення на шину

to power the bus — вмикати (електро)шину

•

- AC bus
- address bus - battery bus - by-pass bus - common bus - communication bus - connecting bus - control bus - data bus - DC bus - deenergized bus - distribution bus - DMA bus - emergency bus - energized bus - essential-services bus - expansion bus - generator bus - interintegrated-circuit bus - left bus - load distribution bus - local bus - main distribution bus - memory bus - monitored bus - nonessential bus - processor bus - rectifier bus - secondary bus - standby bus - tie bus - voltage distribution bus

English-Ukrainian dictionary of aviation terms > bus

См. также в других словарях:

Essential Histories — Pays Royaume Uni Langue Anglais Genre Histoi … Wikipédia en Français
essential — Ⅰ. essential UK US /ɪˈsenʃəl/ adjective ► very important or necessary: »Computer literacy is becoming as essential as the ability to drive a car. an essential component/part of sth »Selective expansion of our store base is an essential component… … Financial and business terms
essential oil — any of a class of volatile oils obtained from plants, possessing the odor and other characteristic properties of the plant, used chiefly in the manufacture of perfumes, flavors, and pharmaceuticals. [1665 75] * * * Any of a class of highly… … Universalium
Francis W. Parker Charter Essential School — Infobox School name = Francis W. Parker Charter Essential School imagesize = 200px caption = motto = established = 1995 type = Charter school affiliation = district = grades = 7 12 president = principal = Teriann Schrader head of school = dean =… … Wikipedia
Metric expansion of space — Physical cosmology Universe · Big Bang … Wikipedia
Overseas expansion of the United States — United States overseas expansion follows the expansion of U.S. frontiers on the North American continent (see Mexican American War, War of 1812, and Territorial acquisitions of the United States), in particular during the Age of Imperialism , the … Wikipedia
EME1 — Essential meiotic endonuclease 1 homolog 1 (S. pombe), also known as EME1, is a human gene.cite web | title = Entrez Gene: EME1 essential meiotic endonuclease 1 homolog 1 (S. pombe)| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene… … Wikipedia
Europe, history of — Introduction history of European peoples and cultures from prehistoric times to the present. Europe is a more ambiguous term than most geographic expressions. Its etymology is doubtful, as is the physical extent of the area it designates.… … Universalium
education — /ej oo kay sheuhn/, n. 1. the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life. 2. the act or process of… … Universalium
Christianity — /kris chee an i tee/, n., pl. Christianities. 1. the Christian religion, including the Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox churches. 2. Christian beliefs or practices; Christian quality or character: Christianity mixed with pagan elements; … Universalium
china — /chuy neuh/, n. 1. a translucent ceramic material, biscuit fired at a high temperature, its glaze fired at a low temperature. 2. any porcelain ware. 3. plates, cups, saucers, etc., collectively. 4. figurines made of porcelain or ceramic material … Universalium

Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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essential expansion

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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essential expansion

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